Nelson File Size : Epidemiology Moyses Szklo — in Education. Author : Moyses Szklo File Size : Jekel — in Medical. Author : James F. Jekel File Size : Managerial Epidemiology G. Alan Dever — in Medical. Author : G. Alan Dever File Size : Help editing common errors that matter.
We all make mistakes and need to learn how to edit them out. Color-coded chapters cover each style, with directories in the back of the book that lead to the specific examples you need.
Color-coded templates show what information to include, and documentation maps show you where to find the information required. Scanning for information. You could scan the red headings to find where the topic is explained. Write I think I did pretty well, considering I started out with nothing but a bunch of blank paper. This chapter discusses each of these elements and provides some questions that can help you think about some of the choices you have to make as you write.
We write to explore our thoughts, express ourselves, and entertain; to record words and events; to communicate with others; to persuade others to think or behave in certain ways.
How will they use what you tell them? What expectations do they have from you? What motivates them? Do they have any political attitudes or interests that may affect the way they read your piece? What do you need to tell them? Do you want them to do or believe something?
Something else? What kind of information will they find interesting or persuasive? Are there any design elements that will appeal to them? Each one has certain features and follows particular conventions of style and presentation.
How do they affect the type of content you should include? As you choose a topic, keep in mind your rhetorical situation and any requirements specified by your assignments. Do you need to do research? What do you want to learn more about? What topics from your courses have you found intriguing? What local, national, or global issues do you care about? For example, you might be objective, critical, passionate, or indifferent. Do you want to be seen as reasonable?
Should you openly reveal it, or would it be better to tone it down? For example, long paragraphs may be fine on paper, but bulleted phrases work better on slides. Should it look serious? Is there anything you should highlight by putting it in a box or italics? Does your genre or medium require them? Is there any information that would be easier to understand as a chart?
This chapter describes some of the elements expected in academic writing. A clear, appropriately qualified thesis. A response to what others have said. Joanna MacKay offers several reasons that sales of human kidneys should be legalized: a surplus exists; the risk to the donor is not great; and legalization would enable the trade in kidneys to be regulated, thereby helping many patients and donors.
For that third reason, her evidence includes statistics about death from renal failure. Acknowledgment of multiple perspectives. Brandon King, for instance, looks at the American Dream from several angles: the ways it is defined, the effects of government policies on achieving it, the role of education, and so on.
Carefully documented sources. If your text will appear online, you can direct readers to online sources by using hyperlinks, but your instructor may want you to document them formally as well. An indication of why your topic matters. Careful attention to correctness. What is your purpose, apart from fulfilling those expectations? Are any required?
We follow a recipe or the directions on a box to bake a cake; we divide a piece of music into various singing parts to arrange it for a choir. So it is when we write. We rely on various processes to get from a blank page to a finished product.
Jot down everything that comes to mind about your topic, working either alone or with others. Look over your list, and try to identify connections or patterns. Write as quickly as you can without stopping for 5 to 10 minutes. Then underline interesting passages. Write more, using an underlined passage as your new topic. Write for 5 to 10 minutes, jotting down whatever you know about your subject. Then write a one-sentence summary of the most important idea. Use this summary to start another loop.
Keep looping until you have a tentative focus. Clustering is a way of connecting ideas visually. Write your topic in the middle of a page, and write subtopics and other ideas around it.
Circle each item, and draw lines to connect related ideas. You might start by asking What? You could also ask questions as if the topic were a play: What happens?
Who are the participants? When does the action take place? Why does this happen? Depending on your topic and purpose, you might do a little preliminary research to get basic information and help you discover paths you might follow.
Here are some steps for developing a tentative thesis statement: 1. To move from a topic to a thesis statement, start by turning your topic into a question: What causes fluctuations in gasoline prices? One way to establish a thesis is to answer your own question: Gasoline prices fluctuate for several reasons. A good way to narrow a thesis is to ask and answer questions about it: Why do gasoline prices fluctuate?
The answer will help you craft a narrow, focused thesis. Though you may sometimes want to state your thesis strongly and bluntly, often you need to acknowledge that your assertion may not be unconditionally true.
You may want to use an outline to help organize your ideas before you begin to draft. You can create an informal outline by simply listing your ideas in the order in which you want to write about them. At some point, you need to write out a draft. As you draft, you may need to get more information, rethink your thesis, or explore some new ideas.
But first, you just need to get started. Try to write a complete draft, or a complete section of a longer draft, in one sitting. Parts of your first draft may not achieve your goals. You can check words, dates, and spelling at a later stage. For now, just write. We also need to get feedback from other readers.
If so, how does it do so? If not, how else might the piece begin? Is it stated directly? If not, should it be? Are they accurately quoted, and have any changes and omissions been indicated with brackets and ellipses?
Does each part relate to the thesis? If so, are they clearly labeled with captions? If you did not create them yourself, have you cited your sources? Where might they need more information or guidance? What does it leave readers thinking? How else might the text end? Does it announce your topic and give some sense of what you have to say? Start with global whole-text issues, and gradually move to smaller, sentence-level details.
Set deadlines that will give you plenty of time to work on your revision. Try to get some distance. If you can, step away from your writing for a while and think about something else. Does each paragraph contribute to your main point? Does your beginning introduce your topic and provide any necessary contextual information?
Does your ending provide a satisfying conclusion? Make sure that all your key ideas are fully explained. If you add evidence, make sure that it all supports your point and includes any needed documentation. You may find it helpful to outline your draft to see all the parts readily. Look closely at your title to be sure it gives a sense of what your text is about. The following guidelines can help you check the paragraphs, sentences, and words in your drafts.
Does every sentence in the paragraph relate to that point? Does each one follow smoothly from the one before it?
Do you need to add transitions? How else might you begin? How else might you conclude? Sometimes these words help introduce a topic, but often they make a text vague. For example, do you need to replace verbs like be or do with more specific verbs? Your writing will almost always be better without such predictable expressions. Proofreading This is the final stage of the writing process, the point when you check for misspelled words, mixed-up fonts, missing pages, and so on.
Use your finger or a pencil as a pointer. Ask someone else to read your text. Here are some guidelines for collaborating successfully. This is especially important when collaborating online. Without tone of voice, facial expressions, and other body language, your words carry all the weight.
Remember also that what you write may be forwarded to others. Group members may not all have access to the same equipment and software. Name files carefully. Appoint one person as timekeeper and another person as group leader; a third member should keep a record of the discussion and write a summary afterward.
Here one writer recalls when he first understood what a paragraph does. The words themselves were mostly foreign, but I still remember the exact moment when I first understood, with a sudden clarity, the purpose of a paragraph.
The words inside a paragraph worked together for a common purpose. They had some specific reason for being inside the same fence. It offers tips and examples for composing strong paragraphs. There is, of course, nothing naturally abhorrent in the human impulse to dwell in marketplaces or the urge to buy, sell, and trade.
Rural Americans traditionally looked forward to the excitement and sensuality of market day; Native Americans traveled long distances to barter and trade at sprawling, festive encampments. In Persian bazaars and in the ancient Greek agoras the very soul of the community was preserved and could be seen, felt, heard, and smelled as it might be nowhere else.
Often, but not always, you might start a paragraph with a topic sentence, as in this example from an essay about legalizing the sale of human kidneys. Dialysis is harsh, expensive, and, worst of all, only temporary. Acting as an artificial kidney, dialysis mechanically filters the blood of a patient. It works, but not well. With treatment sessions lasting three hours, several times a week, those dependent on dialysis are, in a sense, shackled to a machine for the rest of their lives.
Adding excessive stress to the body, dialysis causes patients to feel increasingly faint and tired, usually keeping them from work and other normal activities. See how this strategy works in another paragraph in the essay about kidneys. In a legal kidney transplant, everybody gains except the donor. The doctors and nurses are paid for the operation, the patient receives a new kidney, but the donor receives nothing. Sure, the donor will have the warm, uplifting feeling associated with helping a fellow human being, but this is not enough reward for most people to part with a piece of themselves.
In an ideal world, the average person would be altruistic enough to donate a kidney with nothing expected in return.
The real world, however, is run by money. We pay men for donating sperm, and we pay women for donating ova, yet we expect others to give away an entire organ with no compensation. If the sale of organs were allowed, people would have a greater incentive to help save the life of a stranger.
I came to the United States in at age 3 with my family and immediately stopped speaking Spanish. Whether or not you announce the main point in a topic sentence, be sure that every sentence in a paragraph relates to that point.
Edit out any sentences that stray off topic, such as those crossed out below. Previous generations of immigrants were encouraged to speak only English. When someone poses a question to her in Spanish, she often has to respond in English.
In other instances, she tries to speak Spanish but falters over the past and future tenses. Situations like these embarrass Barrientos and make her feel left out of a community she wants to be part of. Native Guatemalans who are bilingual do not have such problems. Analyzing cause and effect. The following paragraph about air turbulence identifies some of its causes.
A variety of factors can cause turbulence, which is essentially a disturbance in the movement of air. See how two social scientists use classification to explain the ways that various types of social network websites SNSs make user profiles visible.
The visibility of a profile varies by site and according to user discretion. By default, profiles on Friendster and Tribe. Alternatively, LinkedIn controls what a viewer might see based on whether she or he has a paid account. Structural variations around visibility and access are one of the primary ways that SNSs differentiate themselves from each other. See how the following paragraph divides the concept of pressure into four kinds. I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and selfinduced pressure.
But there are no villains; only victims. One is to shift back and forth between each item point by point, as in this paragraph contrasting the attention given to a football team and to academic teams. The football players enjoyed the attentions of an enthralled school, complete with banners, assemblies, and even video announcements in their honor, a virtual barrage of praise and downright deification.
As for the three champion academic teams, they received a combined total of around ten minutes of recognition, tacked onto the beginning of a sports assembly. After all, why should they? See how this approach works in the following example, which contrasts photographs of Bill Clinton and Hillary Clinton on the opening day of the baseball season. The next day photos of the Clintons in action appeared in newspapers around the country. The one of Bill Clinton showed him wearing an Indians cap and warm-up jacket.
The President, throwing lefty, had turned his shoulders sideways to the plate in preparation for delivery. He was bringing the ball forward from behind his head in a clean-looking throwing action as the photo was snapped. In preparation for her throw she was standing directly facing the plate.
A right-hander, she had the elbow of her throwing arm pointed out in front of her. Her forearm was tilted back, toward her shoulder. The ball rested on her upturned palm. As the picture was taken, she was in the middle of an action that can only be described as throwing like a girl. See how one writer uses analogy to explain the way DNA encodes genetic information. Although the complexity of cells, tissues, and whole organisms is breathtaking, the way in which the basic DNA instructions are written is astonishingly simple.
Like more familiar instruction systems such as language, numbers, or computer binary code, what matters is not so much the symbols themselves but the order in which they appear.
In exactly the same way the order of the four chemical symbols in DNA embodies the message. The following paragraph provides brief definitions of three tropical fruits. I walked onto a patio speckled with dark stains, as if the heavens had been spitting down on it.
I looked up; there were the two trees responsible. One was a lollipop mango tree. The other was a nispero tree. Beyond the patio, I saw a mammee tree, which bears large, football-shaped fruit.
Here a paragraph weaves together details of background, appearance, and speech to create a vivid impression of Chuck Yeager, the first pilot to break the sound barrier.
His father was a gas driller drilling for natural gas in the coalfields , his older brother was a gas driller, and he would have been a gas driller had he not enlisted in the Army Air Force in at the age of eighteen. In , at twenty, he became a flight officer, i.
Even in the tumult of the war Yeager was somewhat puzzling to a lot of other pilots. What was puzzling was the way Yeager talked. He seemed to talk with some older forms of English elocution, syntax, and conjugation that had been preserved uphollow in the Appalachians.
Cookbooks explain many processes step-by-step, as in this explanation of how to pit a mango. The simplest method for pitting a mango is to hold it horizontally, then cut it in two lengthwise, slightly off-center, so the knife just misses the pit.
Repeat the cut on the other side so a thin layer of flesh remains around the flat pit. Holding a half, flesh-side up, in the palm of your hand, slash the flesh into a lattice, cutting down to, but not through, the peel. Carefully push the center of the peel upward with your thumbs to turn it inside out, opening the cuts of the flesh. Then cut the mango cubes from the peel. One such incident that has stayed with me, though I recognize it as a minor offense, happened on the day of my first public poetry reading.
It took place in Miami in a boat-restaurant where we were having lunch before the event. I was nervous and excited as I walked in with my notebook in my hand. An older woman motioned me to her table. Thinking foolish me that she wanted me to autograph a copy of my brand-new slender volume of verse, I went over. She ordered a cup of coffee from me, assuming that I was the waitress. Easy enough to mistake my poems for menus, I suppose.
We shook hands at the end of the reading, and I never saw her again. She has probably forgotten the whole thing but maybe not. Illustrating a point with one or more examples is a common way to develop a paragraph, like the following one, which uses lyrics as examples to make a point about the similarities between two types of music.
On a happier note, both rap and [country-and-western] feature strong female voices as well. Repetition, parallelism, and transitions are three strategies for making paragraphs flow.
One way to help readers follow your train of thought is to repeat key words and phrases, as well as pronouns referring to those key words. Not that long ago, blogs were one of those annoying buzz words that you could safely get away with ignoring. Unlike a big media outlet, bloggers focus their efforts on narrow topics, often rising to become de facto watchdogs and self-proclaimed experts.
Blogs can be about anything: politics, sex, baseball, haiku, car repair. There are blogs about blogs. Predictably, the love of cinema has waned. And wonderful films are still being made. The disease was bubonic plague, present in two forms: one that infected the bloodstream, causing the buboes and internal bleeding and was spread by contact; and a second, more virulent pneumonic type that infected the lungs and was spread by respiratory infection.
The presence of both at once caused the high mortality and speed of contagion. Yolanda, the third of the four girls, became a schoolteacher but not on purpose.
For years after graduate school, she wrote down poet under profession in questionnaires and income tax forms, and later amended it to writer-slash-teacher. Today the used-book market is exceedingly well organized and efficient.
Campus bookstores buy back not only the books that will be used at their university the next semester but also those that will not. Those that are no longer on their lists of required books they resell to national wholesalers, which in turn sell them to college bookstores on campuses where they will be required. This means that even if a text is being adopted for the first time at a particular college, there is almost certain to be an ample supply of used copies.
But while a brief, one- or two-sentence paragraph can be used to set off an idea you want to emphasize, too many short paragraphs can make your writing choppy. Opening paragraphs. In the following opening paragraph, the writer begins with a generalization about academic architecture, then ends with a specific thesis stating what the rest of the essay will argue. Academic architecture invariably projects an identity about campus and community to building users and to the world beyond.
Yet in other cases, the architectural language established in surrounding precedents may be more appropriate, even for high-tech facilities. The bottom line is that drastically reducing both crime rates and the number of people behind bars is technically feasible. Whether it is politically and organizationally feasible to achieve this remains an open question.
Sometimes you can rely on established design conventions: in academic writing, there are specific guidelines for headings, margins, and line spacing. No matter what your text includes, its design will influence how your audience responds to it and therefore how well it achieves your purpose. To keep readers oriented as they browse multipage documents or websites, use design elements consistently.
In a print academic essay, choose a single font for your main text and use boldface or italics for headings. In writing for the web, place navigation buttons and other major elements in the same place on every page. Keep it simple. Resist the temptation to fill pages with unnecessary graphics or animations. Aim for balance. Create balance through the use of margins, images, headings, and spacing. Use color and contrast carefully.
Academic readers usually expect black text on a white background, with perhaps one other color for headings. Make sure your audience will be able to distinguish any color variations in your text well enough to grasp your meaning.
Use available templates. To save time and simplify design decisions, take advantage of templates. In reaching this agreement Dr Robertson expressed regret that the media 7 comments about him had made it impossible to proceed.
We would like to see the bank reaching out to minority groups 18 to rebuild its reputation for equal opportunities, which before the Pat Robertson busi- 19 ness was very good. The bank failed to predict the 28 strength of public reaction after announcing the deal with Dr Robertson. We have a long- 30 standing commitment to ethical values, tolerance, equal opportunities, and non- 31 discrimination in all our dealings.
Determination to uphold these principles as we 32 develop our business world-wide will continue to characterise the Bank of Scotland. They not 44 only do things right — they do the right things. In doing so, they act like 45 good citizens. However, its actions teaming up with Robertson and 3 defending the deal by attempting to distinguish between the ethics of commercial deci- 4 sions and the personal views of business partners is not congruent with the core values 5 its statement expresses.
At the time it with- 11 drew from the venture, only accounts had been closed by British customers 12 compared with more than 21, opened during the same period Guardian, 13 Clearly the potential gains would vastly outweigh the losses. As Fombrun 22 81 explains, 23 24 Corporate reputations have bottom line effects. The economic value of a corporate reputation can 28 therefore be gauged by the excess market value of its securities.
These stakes should be recognised by those whose actions may 10 impinge upon them. Individuals should recognise that their behaviour can have reper- 11 cussions upon society.
They should act in a responsible way that does not damage 12 others. Indeed, the BoS could be deemed to have transgressed several of the 29 tenets of stakeholderism. The bank opted for sustainable development. Effective public relations strategists are involved in 49 organisational decision making see Chapter 4. Public relations should do formative research to scan the environment 14 and the behaviour of the organisations to identify these consequences.
At this 21 stage focus groups are particularly helpful. The 27 media play a major role in the creation and expansion of issues.
At this stage, research should segment publics. In doing so it should follow steps 4—7. Indeed it argues that by adopting a stakeholder approach a 15 company will be well managed and therefore able to deliver greater value to its share- 16 holders. Not only did the internet 33 enable pressure groups to mobilise public pressure; it also facilitated fast and effective 34 access to information about the American preacher.
We did not expect that the controversy he was associated with there would 45 have transferred to here where he has no political constituency or business. However, 15 both the bank and Robertson were often reported as being unresponsive, refusing to 16 comment or blaming media distortion for their predicament. Eventually Robertson changed his PR approach and invited the press to America to visit his organisation and 18 speak to him directly.
However, media views were already entrenched. They have got in a muddle. The next chapter examines 33 whether corporate images can be managed, and subsequent chapters consider other 34 aspects of corporate PR such as public affairs, issues management and corporate social 35 responsibility.
An effective communication strategy would also utilise the range of 36 approaches for communicating with different stakeholder groups examined in Part III.
It is a vital aspect of motivating a wide range of stakeholders including voters, employees, shareholders and consumers. The Body Shop is socially responsible, it cares 22 about animals and the environment. As such, identity includes design aspects such 27 as logos, colour, typeface and house style but also embraces less tangible elements 28 such as behaviour, culture, values, mission, communication style and associations 29 with personalities, charities, political parties or other organisations via donations or 30 sponsorship.
Rule Britannia or cool Britannia? Getting the identity right is 32 strategically important. Some of the results are shown in Table 7. This chapter will explore the meaning of corporate 38 identity and image. It will then consider identity and image management and conclude 39 with a case study exploring an identity change programme.
To formulate an 48 image, publics interpret an identity in a wider context with broader frames of reference. Many people exposed 22 to these aspects of its identity may well formulate an image of Nike as a high quality 23 and fashionable arbiter of good design. The 36 Nike case illustrates this well. And, if so, how? Clearly though, controlling identity is not simple or straight- 2 forward. A sans 29 serif typeface, favoured by the tabloids, is often deemed to invoke modernity.
The change in visuals was interpreted as 32 symbolising a major ideological shift from hard left to centrist politics. In addition to avoiding negative 40 connotations, technical, creative, fashion and cost requirements all have to be consid- 41 ered. It includes the existence or absence and distribution of status 48 symbols such as executive washrooms, plush carpets and parking spaces. This aspect 49 will be referred to later as part of a consideration of organisational culture.
Not all organisations want to represent themselves as a 6 homogenised unit though. Some are decentralised and a corporate identity should 7 signal this. Clearly, organisations should involve a range of stakeholders in 22 determining core philosophies and values and clearly communicate the agreed goals. The concept of CSPs fosters a notion of an organic process of 32 developing and communicating organisational images rather than a top—down approach 33 which limits staff to static, agreed perceptions.
And a plethora of recipes for changing organisational cultures are 44 currently on offer. The cultural web illustrates the complexity 31 of organisational culture and, in practical terms, the areas that should be investigated 32 as part of any attempt to audit culture as part of corporate identity.
It could also be argued as being a similar concept to corporate 40 personality. In terms of trying to effect a particular corporate 15 image, however, the notion of a corporate portrait not an actual personality but a care- 16 fully constructed replica of a personality is useful. Whether this perception was fair or not will be debated 37 elsewhere. The point here is that public relations practitioners must carefully consider 38 the motives and ethics of their practice.
Thus, it is crucial that we probe the structure and meaning 44 of that process of representation. Does this mean that one person really 14 knows the identity of another person after having read his or her passport? Truly 16 to know the identity of people, we must go much further. We must have long discus- sions with them, we must ask them about their tastes and convictions, and we must 18 learn their histories.
Stakeholder analysis techniques discussed in 25 Chapter 6 should be used to identify the relevant stakeholders to be used in the research. So a combination 29 of research methodologies must be adopted, targeted at a range of stakeholders.
These 30 could include content analysis of corporate documents, surveys, focus groups, inter- 31 views and critical incident analysis. Narrowing the gap 42 between actual and desired image is the objective of a corporate identity programme. As Grunig and Hunt explain, 12 13 Too often, management wants an easy way to gain the loyalty of employees and 14 get more work out of them. For example, 19 if an organisation professes innovation as a core value, but has a highly bureaucratic 20 structure involving layers of decision-making and centralised power, then innovation 21 will not be fostered.
Its task is to study and document the way in which the different parts of the 31 organisation present themselves in terms of the three traditional areas of design — 32 factories, showrooms and so on; product, packaging and information material; vehicle 33 liveries, signs, brochures, advertising, instruction manuals and every other form of 34 graphics. What does it all look like? What message is it meant to convey?
Such 6 a plan would often aim to manipulate the variables of corporate identity to ensure they 7 suggest a coherent and desirable personality. But is it really possible to manipulate the 8 appropriate variables symbolism, communication and behaviour effectively? However, consultants sometimes claim just this. Corporate 21 identity can, therefore, never be wholly managed.
Provided readers 25 retain a realistic mindset about what can really be effected, a number of useful multi- 26 step corporate identity management plans are available in the literature: Dowling , 27 Olins , Bernstein , van Riel , Abratt and Ind It should enable 31 the following questions to be answered: 32 33 1 What is our current image? Problem analysis 2 3 4 2. Current positioning 5 6 7 6. Gap analysis 8 9 10 11 3. Translation 4.
External image 5. Competition into CI mix research market analysis 12 13 14 15 7a. Maintaining 7b. Adjusting current 7c. Determination 16 current positioning positioning of new position 18 19 7d. Maintaining 7e. Adjusting 20 CI policy CI mix 21 22 23 8. Determination of 24 consequences for CI mix 25 26 27 28 8a. Personality 8b. Behaviour 8c. Communication 8d. Symbolism 29 30 31 9.
In this adapted version, feedback loops inserted between each 45 type of evaluation and the beginning of the process problem analysis indicate the 46 addition of a further step. The feedback loop 49 also represents the cyclical nature of corporate identity management. It must not be seen as a one off procedure but as an ongoing strategic process.
Feedback loops are credible 8 only if the organisation has the ability to listen to what it hears and the desire to 9 act upon what it discovers. At that time, research was just beginning to demonstrate the link between 26 poverty and ill health.
The College worked to improve standards of health and living 27 conditions and campaigned for the introduction of district nurses to care for women in 28 their homes. Within a generation, infant mortality in Scotland was reduced by 50 per 29 cent. Some 3, students from 50 countries worldwide study a wide range 35 of subjects, from dietetics to drama, from radiography to retail business and, of course, 36 corporate communication.
However, 49 it aims to achieve the university title by Rather than inserting the new word into the existing logo 9 however, the Principal and senior management recognised the necessity of a more funda- 10 mental and wide-ranging corporate image audit to help the University College achieve 11 its future strategic aims. Not 13 just thinking about how we look, but about our culture, our values, and how we commu- 14 nicate an accurate image of who we are.
Having expounded often dearly held opinions, partici- 6 pants could then be led through the group processes17 up the conceptual ladder to a 7 stage when valid and interesting views were proffered.
Some were commonly well regarded by 15 participants whilst different publics held distinctive views about some important aspects. This is particularly 13 interesting in relation to the discussion of consistency above. Figure 7. The 35 new visual identity will be consistently used across applications ranging from letter- 36 heads to vehicle livery, uniforms to websites. Symbolism has 41 clearly been affected by the QMUC corporate identity plan.
But what about the other 42 important aspects, behaviour and communication? A number of 45 initiatives have been launched in response. Staff are involved in determining their own criteria for success. My job is to look at the way we need to behave 33 in order to deliver in these areas. Then, a full attitudes 37 survey has been commissioned to determine staff views.
As Wright 44 explains, 45 46 Our research will identify the management style needed to help QMUC develop and 47 achieve future success. We will then design a training programme to help effect 48 this approach. I anticipate that it will involve developing coaching skills associated 49 with empowering staff and a communication style aimed at giving and receiving feedback.
Broadly speaking, corporate 6 identity was originally seen as the visual symbols an organisation used such as logos, 7 house style and other representations associated with design. For some practitioners, 8 that view still persists. However, more recently the concept of corporate identity has 9 been broadened to include linkages between corporate strategy and communication. For a more detailed consideration of the concept, see Chapters 4 and 6.
For further 36 information refer to Vernelle 28—9. The interactive corporation tries to get a reasonably accurate agenda 23 of public issues that it should be concerned with.
An oft-quoted 33 example of this is the growing importance of the environmental lobby. Issues management is therefore preventative. This version of events is then picked 31 up by credible individuals or groups in the dissemination phase. The example quoted by Femers et al. The 35 problem with the chip eventually cost Intel several million dollars. In the third, estab- 36 lishment, phase, popular media deal with the issue and it becomes known to a large part 37 of society.
Finally, public interest declines and the issue drops off the media agenda. Accompanying 45 this has been a substantial rise in support for pressure groups that target those multi- 46 national corporations in order to highlight their polices on.
He also warns against the rise 8 of anti-scientism. John Vidal 13 reported that shareholders in Huntingdon Life Sciences, which tests on animals 14 for the pharmaceutical industry and has been the focus of much pressure group activity, 15 had been sent a letter by the British Union for the Abolition of Vivisection Reform 16 Group AVRG that warned them to sell their shares or face having their homes pick- eted.
One individual who refused had been the victim of a peaceful demonstration 18 outside his house. Companies are having to become more aware not only of their own 19 policies, but of those of other companies that they may invest in.
Few companies 27 had corporate strategies in place to deal with the problem, and tended to rely on media 28 publicity to get their message across rather than taking a strategic approach to the issues 29 raised by pressure groups Hamilton Michael Murphy notes the importance of cultural identity.
Whilst 36 huge trading blocs such as the European Union have been established, and trends towards 37 deregulation in the marketplace are apparent, there has also been a growth in national- 38 ism. This has manifested itself in the UK in devolution to the national assemblies in 39 Wales and Scotland.
Greater access to information allows people to make 46 more informed choices. Lobbying can be either defensive, designed 14 to abolish or amend an existing law, or offensive, aimed at pushing the authorities to 15 create a law.
An example of offensive lobbying was the successful Snowdrop Campaign 16 by parents of children killed at Dunblane, which quickly forced a change in the regulations on private hand guns. The key to lobbying is to understand the legisla- 18 tive process, and how that of the UK and the different national assemblies operate 19 within the European Community.
Increasingly, competition on an international scale 20 means that it is necessary to take wide-ranging cultural and legislative practices into 21 account.
For example, Shell found that its decision to dispose of Brent Spar in the 22 North Sea provoked a reaction from pressure groups across Europe.
In the end, despite 23 the rationality of its argument, a well-orchestrated campaign caused the company to 24 change its policy. He also noted that groups are not equal in 28 wealth and while some can hire public relations consultants, others cannot. The later a campaign begins, the fewer 36 choices are open.
Miller Roche 23 names four common lobbying mistakes: 37 38 1 Contacts are no use unless you have a sound case. They may 46 take on an in-house specialist, as is most likely in large organisations that need to 47 be constantly aware of issues and legislation.
However, there have been calls for 5 regulation of this process see Chapter 5. The problem remains that many lobbyists are not members of any 13 of these professional associations and so cannot be governed by any of their rules.
Bryceson still carries out 15 lobbying work on a pro bono basis for certain special interest groups he supports. Where 16 does lobbying start — is it only when someone is paid to do it that regulation comes into play? This changed the way that lobbyists worked and shifted emphasis onto 24 government advisors.
Parliament was also noticeably younger and contained more 25 women and ethnic MPs. Relationships had to be formed between lobbyists and these 26 new MPs.
By simply paying attention to an issue and 48 neglecting others, the media will affect public opinion. Over 90 per cent of answers are 8 written, and are a good way to bring a matter to the attention of Ministers and other 9 MPs. Lobbyists may seek to persuade an MP to ask a question on behalf of a particu- 10 lar organisation or to support a particular cause.
All questions and answers appear in 11 Hansard. Whitehall departments and the European Commission draft policy and 23 implement decisions formally made by Ministers and Commissioners. Advisory 27 committees and task forces in the UK and Committees of Experts in the EC, made up 28 of outside specialists, may also act as consultation bodies. The European 43 Council consists of all heads of state and meets twice a year.
The Council of Ministers 44 includes ministerial representatives of the member states, in proportion to their popu- 45 lations. The Presidency is held by member states in turn. These institutions are supported by 49 civil servants and other advisers. The legislative process is mainly governed by the Council, the Commission which has the right to initiate proposals and the Parliament. Professional lobbyists would be 20 expected to know which element of the system to approach and how that element would 21 wish to be treated.
By treating receivers of information as stakeholder publics, lobby- 22 ists can increase the likely success of their case. Due thought needs to be given to how 23 the system would receive the information and respond to it. Miller also suggests that 24 the bulk of issues are settled by negotiation, rather than by a simple lobbying process. Some of the global organ- 33 isations have competing priorities.
The World Bank places an emphasis on cash crops 34 like tobacco over subsistence farming, yet the World Health Organization discourages 35 tobacco use. The remit of the new body was still 40 to investigate and report on proposed mergers, but the emphasis shifted towards consid- 41 ering whether decisions would mean better services for consumers.
The chair of the 42 Commission Dr Derek Morris stated that the Commission would prioritise consumer 43 interest over all others, and that its proceedings would be more transparent. But the importance 48 of support from third parties has grown.
Whilst members of the public were not able to make 3 submissions, they were able to attend hearings which previously would have been held 4 in private Freeman Railtrack has a long-term national agenda. The second case study 8 looks at the Voice of the Listener and Viewer VLV , a small pressure group depen- 9 dent on member subscriptions for its income. Despite this, VLV has held several confer- 10 ences with well-respected speakers and has been invited to submit responses to 11 government bodies.
The company owns the rail infrastructure, including track, signals, bridges and all 2, stations. Whilst privatisation freed Railtrack from the necessity 18 of approaching the Treasury each year to gain funds to keep the trains running for the 19 next twelve months, the rail industry receives a substantial although decreasing level 20 of public subsidy and is therefore accountable to the government.
Privatisation has also 21 increased expectations of the industry, not only from politicians but also from the general 22 public. Whilst Railtrack does not run trains, and its customers are the train operating 23 companies rather than passengers, the infrastructure obviously substantially affects the 24 travelling experience. The Labour government 31 is also pro-public transport and wishes to operate in partnership with business. With 32 the Strategic Rail Authority emerging under the responsibility of the Department of 33 Transport, Environment and the Regions, Railtrack needs to have a coherent and consis- 34 tent public affairs policy.
Whilst 39 the latter have an important role to play in helping you shape strategy and key 40 messages, it is important that the company is seen to lead in contacting politicians 41 and civil servants. We are moving to a situation where we are retaining an agency 42 on an ad hoc, project basis rather than on a retainer, but we are predominately doing 43 the work ourselves, in-house.
Whilst the team has increased in strength and moved 44 from being a mere packhorse to being involved in strategic thinking, there are still 45 only four people in my team. We have to be more cerebral than that. No lobbying is better than 49 bad lobbying. If you mess it up, it can have a negative effect so that it is harder to make an approach the next time. But 16 the surest way to the hearts and minds of MPs is to break it down to constituency sized chunks.
I can then make an indi- 25 vidually targeted package of information for each MP which will contain details of 26 what we are doing in their patch. On average, we have at least one MP visit to a 27 station site each week, where they can don a hard hat, see what work we are doing 28 and get local coverage in the media. Improvements to station surfaces, better disabled 29 access, more bike racks, repairing the clock tower, they can see what they are getting 30 for the money.
We can analyse where complaints are 33 coming from and what those complaints are, whether it is vibration from trains, 34 noise or vandalism, and match our activities to their agenda. We want to stop the 25, people who write to us complaining from 37 writing to their MP. You have to be careful not to negotiate through 3 the media, with government ministers feeling like they have been ambushed by 4 reading something in the media which they should have heard directly from you.
A close relationship with the Chief Executive 9 and senior directors is essential so that public affairs does not become marginalised. This is in contrast with 14 VLV, described below. Around people wrote in support of a piece in The Sunday Times calling 23 for an association of listeners, and a public meeting was organised in November We cover both.
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